Tuesday, January 28, 2020
Change Detection Techniques of Remote Sensing Imageries
Change Detection Techniques of Remote Sensing Imageries 1.1 Introduction Over the past years, academics have suggested enormous numbers of change detection techniques of remote sensing imageries and classified them from a different point of views [28]. These techniques depend on the assumption of spatial independence among pixels. This assumption is valid only for low, medium and high-resolution images but insufficient for VHR images [1]. This chapter presents the concept, implementation, and assessment of seven change detection techniques using low, medium and high-resolution ORSI. The rest of this chapter is organized into eight sections. Section 3.2 presents a brief description of the study areas. Section 3.3 describes the dataset characteristics of the study areas (Sharm El-Sheikh city and Mahalla al-kubra city Egypt). Section 3.4 presents the pre-processing performed on the image dataset before change detection process. Section 3.5 provides the accuracy assessment measures used for evaluation of the change detection process. Section 3.6 illustrates the concepts of the selected seven change detection techniques. These techniques are post-classification, direct multi-date classification (DMDC), image differencing (ID), image rationing (IR), image symmetric relative difference (ISRD), change vector analysis (CVA), and principal component differencing (PCD). Section 3.7 presents the experimental work. It explains the Implementation and accuracy assessment of applying the selected change detection techniques on an image dataset of Sharm El-Sheikh city- Egypt. Section 3.8 presents the application of post-classification change detection technique on an image dataset of El-Mahalla El-kubra City-Egypt to detect the urban expansion over the agricultural area through the period from 2010 to 2015. Finally, section 3.9 gives the chapter summary. 1.2 The study areas In this chapter, two study areas are selected for the application of the selected change detection techniques. The first area is a part of Sharm el-Sheikh city. It is located on the southern landfill of the Sinai Peninsula, in the South Sinai Governorate, Egypt, on the coastal bar along the Red Sea as shown in figure (3.1). Its population is approximately 73,000 as of 2015 [62]. Sharm El Sheikh is the administrative hub of Egypts South Sinai Governorate, which includes the smaller coastal towns of Dahab and Nuweiba as well as the mountainous interior, St. Catherine and Mount Sinai. Today the city is a holiday resort and significant center for tourism in Egypt. The selected area is about 12.5 Km2. The second study area is a village belongs to El Mahalla El Kubra city. El Mahalla El Kubra is a large industrial and agricultural city in Egypt, located in the middle of the Nile Delta on the western bank of the Damietta Branch tributary, as shown in figure (3.2). The city is known for its textile industry. It is the largest city of the Gharbia Governorate and the second largest in the Nile Delta [63]. The selected area is about 38 Km2. 1.3 Images datasets of the study areas In this chapter, two datasets are used. The first dataset consists of two images of Sham el-Sheikh city acquired by Landsat 7 at 2000 and 2010 respectively as shown in figure (3.3). Area of the image lies between Lat. 28 0 37.0091 N, Lon. 34 17 56.3381 E and Lat. 27 57 20.8804 N, Lon. 34 24 43.6080 E. Table (3.1) summarizes the characteristic of these images. Table (3.1 ) Characteristic of Sham el-Sheikh dataset No Spatial resolution Radiometric resolution Number of bands Acquisition date Size [pixels] Area [km2] Width Height 1 30 m 8 bits 3 2000 382 364 12.5143 2 30 m 8 bits 3 2010 382 364 12.5143 (a) (b) Fig (3.3 ) Dataset of Sharm el-Sheikh city- Egypt acquired by Landsat 7 at (a) image acquired at 2000 and the (b) image acquired at 2010. Figure (3.4) illustrates the second dataset of a village belongs to EL Mahalla al-Kubra city in Egypt. It consists of two images acquired in 2010 and 2015. It is taken by El-Shayal Smart web online Software that could acquire Satellite images from Google Earth. The image area lies between Lat. 30 57 46.9032 N, Lon. 31 14 35.4776E and Lat. 30 54 47.00 N, Lon. 31 18 19.98. Table (3.2) summarizes the characteristic of this dataset. (a) (b) Fig ( 3.4 ) Dataset of EL mahalla al-kubra city- Egypt ( Google Earth) (a) image acquired at 2010 and (b) image acquired at 2015. Table (3.2 ) Characteristic of EL mahalla al-kubra dataset No Spatial resolution Radiometric resolution Number of bands Acquisition date Size [pixels] Area [km2] Width Height 1 6 m 8 bits 3 2010 1056 1007 38.2821 2 6 m 8 bits 3 2015 1056 1007 38.2821 1.4 Image Pre-processing for Change Detection Before change detection process, it is usually necessary to carry out the radiometric correction and image registration for the dataset used [64]. In sections 3.4.1and 3.4.2, the concept of radiometric and image registration are described. The execution of preprocessing on the dataset used is given in section 3.7.2. 1.4.1 Radiometric correction Radiometric conditions are influenced by many factors such as different imaging seasons or dates, different solar altitudes, different view angles, different meteorologic conditions and different cover areas of cloud, rain or snow etc. It may affect the accuracy of most change detection techniques. Radiometric correction is performed to remove or reduce the inconsistency between the values surveyed by sensors and the spectral reflectivity and spectral radiation brightness of the objects, which encompasses absolute radiometric correction and relative radiometric correction [26]. Absolute radiometric correction It mainly rectifies the radiation distortion that is irrelevant to the radiation features of the object surface and is caused by the state of sensors, solar illumination, and dispersion and absorption of atmospheric etc. The typical methods mainly consist of adjusting the radiation value to the standard value with the transmission code of atmospheric radiation, adjusting the radiation value to the standard value with spectral curves in the lab, adjusting the radiation value to the standard value with dark object and transmission code of radiation, rectifying the scene by removing the dark objects and so on. Due to the fact that it is expensive and impractical to survey the atmospheric parameter and ground objects of the current data, and almost impossible to survey that of the historical data, it is difficult to implement absolute radiometric correction in most situations in reality. Relative radiometric correction In a relative radiometric correction, an image is regarded as a reference image. Then adjust the radiation features of another image to make it match with the former one. Main methods consist of correction by histogram regularization and correction with fixed object. This kind of correction can remove or reduce the effects of atmosphere, sensor, and other noises. In addition, it has a simple algorithm. So it has been widely used. The radiation algorithms that are most frequently used at present in the preprocessing of change detection mainly consists of image regression method, pseudo-invariant features, dark set and bright set normalization, no-change set radiometric normalization, histogram matching, second simulation of the satellite signal in the solar spectrum and so on. It should be pointed that radiometric correction isnt necessary for all change detection methods. Although some scholars hold that radiometric corrections are necessary for multi-sensor land cover change ana lysis Leonardo studies at 2006 have shown that if the obtained spectral signal comes from the images to be classified, it is unnecessary to conduct atmospheric correction before the change detection of post-classification comparison. For those change detection algorithms based on feature, object comparison, radiometric correction is often unnecessary [64]. 1.4.2 Image registration Precise registration to the multi-temporal imageries is essential for numerous change detection techniques. The importance of precise spatial registration of multi-temporal imagery is understandable because generally spurious results of change detection will be formed if there is misregistration. If great registration accuracy isnt available, a great deal of false change area in the scene will be caused by image displacement. It is commonly approved that the geometrical registration accuracy of the sub-pixel level is recognized. It can be seen that the geometrical registration accuracy of the sub-pixel level is necessary to change detection. However, it is doubtful whether this result is suitable for all registration data sources and all detected objects and if suitable how much it is. Another problem is whether this result has no influence on all change detection techniques and applications and if there is any influence how much it is. These Problems are worth to be studied further. On the other hand, it is difficult to implement high accuracy registration between multi-temporal especially multi-sensor remote sensing images due to many factors, such as imaging models, imaging angles and conditions, curvature and rotation of the earth and so on. Especially in the mountainous region and urban area, general image registration methods are ineffective and orthorectification is needed. Although geometrical registration of high accuracy is necessary to techniques used for low, medium and high resolution (like image differencing techniques and post-classification), it is unnecessary for all change detection t. For the feature-based change detection methods like object-based change detection method, the so-called buffer detection procedure can be employed to associate the extracted objects or features and in this manner, the harsh prerequisite of perfect registration can be escaped [65]. However, these methods neglect the key problem of the distinction between radiomet ric and semantic changes. So, it does not address the problem of change detection from a general perspective. It just focuses on specific applications relevant to the end user [1]. 1.5 Accuracy Assessment used for Change Detection Process evaluation The accuracy of change detection depends on many factors, including precise geometric registration and calibration or normalization, availability and quality of ground reference data, the complexity of landscape and environment, methods or algorithms used, the analysts skills and experience, and time and cost restrictions. Authors in [66] summarized the main errors in change detection including errors in data (e.g. image resolution, accuracy of location and image quality), errors caused by pre-processing (the accuracy of geometric correction and radiometric correction), errors caused by change detection methods and processes (e.g. classification and data extraction error), errors in field survey (e.g. accuracy of ground reference) and errors caused by post-processing. Accuracy assessment techniques in change detection originate from those of remote sensing images classification. It is natural to extend the accuracy assessment techniques for processing single time image to that of bi-temporal or multi-temporal images. Among various assessment techniques, the most efficient and widely-used is the error matrix [26]. It describes the comparison or cross-tabulation of the classified land cover to the actual land cover revealed by the sample sites results in an error matrix as demonstrated in the table (3.3). It can be called a confusion matrix, contingency table [67], evaluation matrix [68] or misclassification matrix [69]. Different measures and statistics can be derived from the values in an error matrix. These measures are used to evaluate the change detection process. These measures are overall accuracy, procedures accuracy and user accuracy [70]. Overall accuracy of the change map It presents the ratio of the total number of correctly classified pixels to the total number of pixels in the matrix. This figure is normally expressed as a percentage. It can be expressed as follows: The overall accuracy =                       (3.1) Users accuracy (column accuracy) It is a measure of the reliability of change map generated from a CD process. It is a statistic that can tell the user of the map what percentage of a class corresponds to the ground-truthed class. It is calculated by dividing the number of correct pixels for a class by the total pixels assigned to that class. The user accuracy =                  (3.2) Producers accuracy (raw accuracy) It is a measure of the accuracy of a particular classification scheme. It shows what percentage of a particular ground class was correctly classified. It is calculated by dividing the number of correct pixels for a class by the actual number of ground truth pixels for that class. The procedure accuracy =             (3.3) Table ( 3.3 ) Change error matrix or confusion matrix. Classified land cover Actual land cover Class1 = change Class2 = no change Class1 = change Correct False Class2 = no change False Correct 1.6 Concepts of the selected change detection techniques Seven LULC change detection techniques are selected to be implemented on our dataset. These techniques are post-classification, direct multi-date classification (DMDC), image differencing (ID), image rationing (IR), image symmetric relative difference (ISRD), change vector analysis (CVA), and principal component differencing (PCD). Image differencing Itis based on the subtraction of two spatially registered imageries, pixel by pixel, as follows: ID =Xi (t2) Xi (t1)                                                          (3.4) Where: X represents the multispectral images with I (number of bands) acquired at two different times t1and t2. The pixels of changed area are predictable to be scattered in the two ends of the histogram of the resulting image (change map), and the no changed area is grouped around zero as shown in figure (3.5). This simple manner easily infers the resulting image; conversely, it is vital to properly describe the thresholds to perceive the change from non-change regions [71]. Fig (3.5 ) Histogram of the change map. Image Rationing It is similar to image differencing method. The only difference between them is the replacement of the differencing images by rationed images [71].                                  IR =Xi (t2) / Xi (t1)                                                    (3.5) Image Symmetric Relative Difference it is based on the useof symmetric relative difference formula to measure change [72], as follows: ISRD =                                       (3.6) Separating the change by the pixels value at time 1 and time 2 permits the derivation of a change map that measures the proportion change in the pixel, nonetheless of which image is selected to be the first image. For instance, a pixel that had a value of 20 at time 1 and a value of 80 at time 2 would have an absolute change of 60, and a proportion change value in the change map of 375%: [(80 20) / 20 + (80-20)/80] * 100 = 375% An additional pixel with a value of 140 at time 1 and 200 at time 2 would also have an absolute change of 60, but its proportion change would only be 72.86%:     [(200 140) / 140 + (200-140)/200] * 100 = 72.86% In general, it can be supposed that the proportion change of a pixels brightness value is more revealing of real change in the image than purely the absolute change [73]. Change Vector Analysis It generates two outputs: a change vector image and a magnitude image. The spectral change vector (SCV) explains the direction and magnitude of change from the first to the second date. The overall change extent per pixel is considered by defining the Euclidean distance between end points over dimensional change space, as follows:                            (3.7) A decision on change is made based on whether the change magnitude exceeds a specific threshold. The geometric concept of CVA is applicable to any number of spectral bands [41]. Principal Component Differencing It is often accepted as effective transforms to derive information and compress dimensions. Most of the information is focused on the first two components. Particularly, the first component has the most information. The difference between the first principle component of two dates has the potential to advance the change detection outcomes, i.e. PCD= PC1 (X(t2)) PC1 (X(t1))                                           (3.8) The change detection is implemented based on threshold [28]. Direct multi-date classification It combines the two images (X (t2) and X (t1)) into a single image on which a classià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ cation is performed. The areas of changes are expected to present different statistics (i. e., distinct classes) compared to the areas with no changes [74]. Post-classification It is based on the classification of the two images (X (t2) and X(t1)) separately and then compared. Ideally, similar thematic classes are produced for each classià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ cation. Changes between the two dates can be visualized using a change matrix indicating, for both dates, the number of pixels in each class. This matrix allows us to interpret what changes occurred for a specià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ c class. The main advantage of this method is the minimal impacts of radiometric and geometric differences between multi-date images. However, the accuracy of the à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ nal result is the product of accuracies of the two independent classià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ cations (e.g., 64% à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ nal accuracy for two 80% independent classià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ cation accuracies) [74]. 1.7 Experimental work This section describes the environment and the implementation procedures of seven selected change detection techniques on the first dataset of Sham el-Sheikh city. 1.7.1 Experiment setup Applying methods described in section 3.5 requires a suitable setup (environment). The setup requirements are summarized in software and hardware. A laptop machine with processor Intel(R) core (TM)i7-4500U CPU @1.80 GH 2.40 GH and RAM 8 GB is used as hardware environment. ERDASD IMAGINE 2014 is selected to be the software environment. It has the Model maker toolbox which is used as a programming language. It is chosen for its ability to combine matrix datasets and multi-dimensional arrays that are used to represent multi-dimensional images, and also for its ability to visualize and interrogate results in an interactive manner. Moreover, it allows providing the integration of the necessary datasets and algorithmic customizations for the development of the described method. 1.7.2 Pre-processing Dataset of EL mahalla al-kubra described in section 3.3 had already registered before. Radiometric correction is carried out to minimize the false change detection by applying histogram matching between the two images. So, the pixel of the no changed areas in one date should take the same or close gray level values of the corresponding pixels in the other date as shown in figure (3.6) [75]. (a) (b) Fig (3.6 ) Dataset of Sharm el-Sheikh city after applying histogram matching on the image acquired at 2000 to match the image acquired at 2010. 1.7.3 Implementation of the change detection techniques The selected techniques are implemented by the model maker in the ERDAS IMAGINE 2014 software for a dataset of Sharm el-Sheikhto provide an overview and assessment of LULC change detection techniques. 250 random variables are used to generate an error matrix to calculate the overall accuracy according to equation (3.1). The reference points are driven visually by comparing the two images. Table (3.4) summarizes the implementation of the selected methods. 1.7.4 Results analysis The results of applying the selected change detection techniques on the first dataset of Sham el-Sheikh city are introduced in the following: Image differencing The change map generated using the image differencing method described in section 3.6 is shown in figure (3.7). The change map has two colors. The white color represents the changed area while the black color represents the no changed area. The change error matrix is generated using 250 random variables as demonstrated in the table (3.5). The reference information is taken visually by comparing the dataset. It is used to calculate the overall accuracy, user accuracy, and the procedures accuracy. The overall accuracy of the change map is 92.4%. Table (3.4) Steps of implementation the selected change detection techniques on a dataset of Sharm el-Sheikh. Method Procedures Image differencing ID 1- Applying equation (3.4). 2- Threshold values were determined according to the statistical calculation by taking (1* STD) to identify the land cover change. This step provides a binary image for each band, 1 as change and 0 as non-change. 3- The change map is produced according to the majority voting between the binary images. 4- The overall accuracy is calculated by Producing change error matrix using 250 random variables according to equation (3.1). Image rationing IR 1- Apply equation (3.5). 2- Thresholds were determined as mentioned before. 3- Change map is produced through majority voting between the binary images. 4- The overall accuracy is calculated by Producing change error matrix using 250 random variables according to equation (3.1). Image symmetric Relative Difference ISRD 1-Apply equation (3.6) 2- Thresholds were determined as mentioned before. 3- Change map is produced through majority voting between the binary images. 4- The overall accuracy is calculated by Producing change error matrix using 250 random variables according to equation (3.1). Change Vector analysis CVA 1- Apply equation (3.7) to get the Euclidian distance between the two dates. 2- Thresholds were determined as mentioned before. 3- Change map is produced through majority voting between the binary images. 4- The overall accuracy is calculated by Producing change error matrix using 250 random variables according to equation (3.1). Principal component differencing PCD 1- Get the principle componentof the two images. 2- Apply equation (3.8). 3- Thresholds were determined as mentioned before. 4- Change map is produced through majority voting between the binary images. 5- The overall accuracy is calculated by Producing change er
Monday, January 20, 2020
Essay on Symbols and Symbolism in Moby Dick :: Moby Dick Essays
"He piled upon the whale's white hump the sum of all the general rage and hate felt by his whole race from Adam down; and then, as if his chest had been a mortar, he burst his hot heart's shell upon it." Such was Melville's description of Captain Ahab. The symbolism that this statement suggests, along with many other instances of symbolism, are incorporated into Moby Dick. Although the crew knew that Ahab was obsessed with vengeance and wasn't interested in killing Moby Dick for whale oil, they still felt obligated to follow his orders. They knew that the rule book said that if a captain went against his contract due to personal feelings, they were obliged to wrest command from him. This idea symbolizes the emotional attachment we have to those around us, and it also demonstrates the mixed feelings we have when somebody we respect does something evil. In the end, this emotional attachment destroyed the crew. Starbuck had a golden opportunity to kill Ahab, but for his own salvation, h e undermined the good of the crew and chose to let the Captain live. So, part of the lesson of Moby Dick is not to let sentiment and personal feelings get in the way of our duty. The lack of this lesson among the crew destroyed Ahab and the entire ship's compliment, except for Ishmael. When Captain Ahab stabbed at Moby Dick with the harpoon, he was symbolizing the power that obsession has when a person lets it take over one's mind. Ahab had no chance of killing Moby Dick, yet he engaged in his suicide plan to stab at the whale. This lesson not to let obsession take over your mind is similar to Javert's obsession with justice and imprisoning Valjean in Les Miserables. It shows that a passion with a personal vendetta will ultimately destroy a person, whether it destroys the person physically or mentally. Moby Dick also was a mixed symbol. It seemed clear to the crew of the Pequod that whales were evil and whales were the enemy. Yet, white is a symbol of good, so one could conclude that Moby Dick was a symbol of both good and evil. With Moby Dick killing Ahab, he gave Ahab his just reward from acting out of revenge, which could be interpreted as an act of good. When Moby Dick killed all but one of the crew, it showed that he may be evil, even though he was acting only out of instinct, thinking his life was threatened.
Sunday, January 12, 2020
Hypnosis. Psychological and Physical Aspects of Hypnosis
| Hypnosis. Psychological and physical aspects of hypnosis. Hypnosis is a natural state of mind that can be used for many purposes, in different settings. Nowadays research in the field of hypnosis and associated areas has blossomed and there are valuable evidence that hypnosis has real and measurable affects on both body and mind. During this essay I will be describing what is hypnosis including what the psychological and physical aspects of hypnosis are, further I will be discussing the role of relaxation in hypnotherapy. We experience the â€Å"hypnotic state†in everyday life and it often occurs without recognition as such. It is believed that our mind can drift from alert state into different level of consciousness whenever we do activities in automatic mode, like driving, jogging, taking a shower, walking, etc. These are hypnotic-like trances. The main differences between these sorts of trance and clinical hypnosis are specific motivation and suggestions to achieve some desired results. Therapist may use hypnosis to explore patient’s unconsciousness, to identity whether past events or experiences are associated with causing a problem. One of the most accepted axioms of hypnotherapy that nothing can be done with hypnosis that cannot be done without. Barber (1969) offered considerable experimental evidence for â€Å"Anything you can do I can do†¦ †At the same time, since hypnosis occurs spontaneously in therapy as well as in ordinary life it is impossible to ignore the part played by hypnosis in the service of the patient. It is important to understand that no two individuals will have identical experience as they progress from the state of alertness to a deep trance. The impact of hypnosis on a person's subsequent actions is dependent upon how suggestible that particular individual happens to be, a quality that can differ from one person to the next. Each person experiences the hypnotic phenomenon in his or her own way. However, it has been recognized that suggestions during the hypnosis could influence the physical processes in the body and in the brain. The earliest references of hypnosis date back to ancient Egypt and Greece. Both cultures had religious centres where people came for help with their problems. Hypnosis was used to induce dreams, which were then analysed to get to the root of the trouble. The man who most people associate with the beginning of hypnosis is an Austrian doctor Franz Anton Mesmer (1733-1815). Mesmer believed that a â€Å"cosmic fluid†could be stored in inanimate objects, such as magnets, and transferred to patients and cure them of illness. Eventually Mesmer discarded the magnets and regarded himself as a magnet through which a fluid life force could be conducted and transmitted to others as a healing force. He incorporated that into the theory of â€Å"animal magnetism†. Despite the fact that no evidence supports the existence of that theory, he had tremendous success. Mesmerism became the forerunner of hypnotic suggestion. Meanwhile, the marquise de Puysegur, believed that the â€Å"cosmic fluids†was not magnetic, but electric, that generated in plants and animals. Puysegur used the natural environment to fill his patients with healing electric fluid. During that activity some of the patients entered a somnambulistic state (a deep trance). The marquis had discovered the hypnotic trance, but had not identified it as such. Another forward thinker in the mid 1800 was a professor at London University, John Elliotson (1791-1868), who use the hypnotic state to relieve pain during the surgical operations. In India, a British surgeon, James Esdaile (1808-1859) recognised the enormous benefits of hypnosis for pain relief and performed hundreds of major operations using hypnosis as his only anaesthetic. This was accomplished by inducing the trance state to the patient weeks before the surgery and offering posthypnotic suggestions to numb the part of the body on which the operation was to be performed. The next real pioneer of hypnosis in Britain in the late 1800s was James Braid (1795-1860), who gave mesmerism a scientific explanation. He believed mesmerism to be a â€Å"nervous sleep†and coined the word hypnosis, from Greek word Hypnos, meaning sleep. He discovered that getting a patient to fixate upon something was one of the most important components of putting them into a trance. The French scientists were also taking the interest in the subject of hypnosis, and many breakthroughs were made by Ambroise Leibeault (1823-1904), a neurologist Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) and Charles Richet (1850-1935). Ambroise Leibeault and Hippolyte Bernheim (1837-1919) were the first who asserted that expectation is a most important factor in the induction of hypnosis and suggestibility is its essential symptom. The work of another Frenchman, Emile Coue (1857 – 1926), was very interesting. He is most famous for the phrase ‘Day by day in every way I am getting better and better'. His technique was one of affirmation and his idea was that the imagination is always more powerful than the will. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was also interested in hypnosis at this time. He was using it in his work, but eventually abandoned it in favour of psychoanalysis. With the rise of psychoanalysis in the first half of this century, hypnosis declined in popularity. Milton Erickson (1901-1980) is considered the leading authority of clinical hypnosis. Nowadays Erickson approach to hypnosis without question is the most effective. There are many physical and psychological problems can be effectively controlled by the use of hypnosis. Patients suffering with chronic illnesses such as cancer, arthritis, stroke and multiple sclerosis can benefits from hypnosis in many ways. In all this entire spectrum of diseases, pain is one of the most common symptoms. The most distressing an aspect of pain is the loss of control the patient feels. Through hypnosis is possible to show patients how they can use their own mind to change the subjective feeling of pain, restoring that sense of control and make patient feel empowered. Increased self-esteem, developing more positive attitude may even decrease the use of pharmacological agents. When done properly, hypnosis holds several advantages over drugs. It has no side effects, while drugs can leave a sense of dependence for the patient. Hypnosis not only gives the ability to relieve the pain, but removes the ever-present fear of pain’s return. For certain types of breast and thyroid surgery, a combination of hypnosis and local anaesthesia can aid in the healing process, and can reduce drug use and time spent in the hospital, according to studies reported at Euroanaesthesia 2011 in Amsterdam. According to the researchers, women who were hypnotized spent a few minutes more in the operating room (122 vs. 116 min), perioperative drug use was reduced, as was time in the recovery room and in the hospital. No patient in the hypnosis group converted to general anaesthesia during surgery. The major benefit is that hypnosis is modifying the cognitive response to sensation points, changing the expectations and reducing stress. Hypnosis can be especially helpful when dealing with diseases that have psychosomatic aspects, such as psoriasis, eczema, asthma. Study reviled that using hypnotherapy can improve those conditions. It concluded that the greater the depth of hypnosis the patient achieved the greater the improvement in patient’s condition. Using the relaxation techniques and post-hypnotic suggestion to discharge anxiety can significantly reduce the stress, which is a well known trigger for psychosomatic disorders. Hypnotherapy deals with psychological and physical disorders in variety of way. There are countless types of suggestion that can be given to patients while there in trance. Patients can even be age-regressed back to a time before they have been ill, injured or distressed and then received comfort and reassurance followed by relief. Imaginary, visualisation, metaphors are also the key factors in hypnosis. Through training the mind to imagine the desired outcome can help bring the desired result. This technique has great success in sport and help to achieve the peak performance. Relaxation is the first resource in hypnotherapy intervention that enhances the process of healing and recovery. Researchers have shown that being to tense or living with too much stress has a significant negative impact on our life. It can lead to physical illnesses and many psychological issues. The effect from relaxation on our body and mind is enormous. Relaxation in hypnotherapy helps in 3 ways; its completely turning off the sympathetic nervous system, changing our reaction to stressful events and build up our parasympathetic nervous system. The first goal in hypnosis is to achieve a very deep state of relaxation where our mind is more focused and the connections between our thoughts, emotions and behaviour are clearer. This type of therapy is very helpful to reduce anxiety, distress and fear. This is can be done in a trance state by guiding the patient through imaginary and visualisation. Once a patient is able to get into that state, the goal becomes lengthening the period of relaxation and teaching the patient how to control these internal images on his own. Most people will feel certain degree of anxiety in everyday life. Such feeling are generally reasonable and appropriate and it is only if that anxiety is exaggerated in intensity or duration, prevents to perform a required task or interfere with person’s life to a significant degree, than it is begins to regard as pathological reaction. Not surprisingly, using relaxation techniques can be very effective when patient get the rising heart and panic attack. This is another category of pathological anxiety reactions that includes phobic attacks to spiders, mice, rats, snakes, lizards and other creatures. Patients with such phobic reaction may be taught to rehearse so that every time they begin to get the racing heart signifying panic to that person, they begin to use their learned techniques of imagery to put their mind in a more relaxed place. The relaxation techniques can be used along with biofeedback instrument to increase the effectiveness of relaxation. Biofeedback is a tool which gives immediate and objective evidence to the patient of his ability to control such processes as heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, skin resistance and blood pressure. To those patients who are able to response moderately well to hypnosis, it offers a means of achieving some degree of voluntary or self-mediated control over these pathological reactions. It is important to ensure that anxiety is not the expression of underlying depression or major psychiatric disorder that is not yet manifest. Hypnosis has both a diagnostic and therapeutic role in eating disorders. For example, during hypnosis patients can uncover their past traumas or feeling of deserving self-punishment. Dr. Moshe S. Torem describes introducing hypnosis to eating disorders patient initially in the form of self-hypnosis, framed as a technique to improve calmness and relaxation. It appears that hypnotherapy is quite popular and sufficient way that could help you to illuminate negative behaviour patterns or bad habits. Focused relaxation techniques are used to modifier person behaviour and change the way one thinks about addictions and habits that affect the quality of life. Hypnosis connects modern practice with practices that have been used by ancient Egyptian and enlightened Zen masters. It informs our understanding of how the mind connects with the body, as well as how conscious mind connect with the unconscious. Hypnosis can be applied in physical and psychosomatic disorders in many ways. First, it can be effective in reducing pain and discomfort. Secondly, hypnotic techniques can contribute substantially to the reduction of distress, anxiety and fears. Thirdly, it can be employed to influence the psychological processes that can give the power and the ability to patients to improve their life in an infinite number of ways. Hellmut W. A. Karle and Jennifer H. Boys 2010. Hypnotherapy. A Practical Handbook Journals online. Journal of Health Psychology. The physical, Psychological and Social Impact of Psoriasis. Josie Hadley and Carol Staudacher 2002. Hypnosis for Change. Michael Heap and Windy Dryden. Hypnotherapy. A Handbook Medscape CME Nursing. Journal online. Euroanaesthesia 2011. , Combination of hypnosis and local anaesthesia for certain types of breast and thyroid surgery. www. ibshypnosis. com Clinical hypnosis: Something for you? By Olafur S. Palsson, Psy. D. www. hypnosisexpert. co. uk Top 5 Most Effective Uses for Hypnotherapy. By Anna Aengel 2010 www. systemthinker. com Hypnosis Past, Present and Future: Its Medical and Psychiatric Applications by Howard Ditkoff M. D. www. innerhealhstudio. com Relaxation Therapy For Body and Mind. By Candi Raudebaugh.
Friday, January 3, 2020
Racial Aspects Of The Civil War - 810 Words
Racial Aspects of the Civil War 1 April 30, 1866, four police officers encountered several blacks walking on Causey Street in Memphis, Tennessee. The officers forced the blacks off the sidewalk; one black stumbled and fell tripping an officer. The Police then drew their pistols and began to beat the blacks. The riot started the next day, when police officers attempted to arrest two former black soldiers. 2 It is said that nearly fifty blacks attempted to prevent the officer from jailing the ex-soldiers. â€Å"Accounts vary as to who began the shooting, but the altercation that ensued quickly involved more and more of the city.†White rioters burned a Freedmen’s schoolhouses, black homes, and even churches. May 3rd marked the end of the riots, Forty-six blacks died, and 285 people were injured. â€Å"Over one hundred houses and buildings burned down as a result of the riot and the neglect of the firemen.†2 The New Orleans Massacre was just another example of the bestial attitudes of the ex-confederates toward the blacks. Before the riot started in front of the Mechanics Institute, where white and black delegates were to meet for the Louisiana Constitutional Convention, 130 black citizens marched towards the Mechanics Institute. The Mayor at the time, Mr. John T. Monroe, rallied a mob of ex-confederates and white supremacists to stop the delegates from meeting. After reaching a distance of only a few blocks apart, shots rang out but the two groups continued advancing.Show MoreRelatedThe Battle Of The Confederate Flag1208 Words  | 5 Pagesflag. Apparently, there is a common perception among Democrats that the Confederates are associated with racial crime and hate in America. The suspect behind the shooting in Charleston has confessed that he acted about the idea of white supremacy in the South. A large section of the American population agrees the flag is a symbol of racism since i t was established in honor of white civil war soldier who wanted to preserve slavery in the region. Interestingly, the flag has remained a monumental symbolRead MoreImprovement of the Position of the Black Population Between 1940 and 19501274 Words  | 6 Pagesfight for their basic civil rights in the United States of America. The black people suffered strong discrimination in terms of housing, jobs and even education and travel. The blacks also sometimes suffered physical racial attacks. However during the 1940s and early 1950s blacks fought to improve the civil rights in a number of different aspects. These aspects were in political, social and economic areas. An example of the political aspects was the proposed MarchRead MoreThe War For Equality During The 20th Century1218 Words  | 5 PagesThe War for Equality The first half of the Twentieth century witnessed both WWI and WWII and another war as well; the War for Equality. With a racism and persecution at a high level, racial minorities were ready to fight back. In the first half of the Twentieth century the mistreatment of racial minorities led to a War for Equality; fought on many levels with varying levels of success. The war was fierce and did not end in the first half of the Twentieth Century. Like any war the War for EqualityRead MoreThe Tensions Of The Civil War988 Words  | 4 PagesThe tensions of the Civil War are very much still alive in the Southern United States one hundred and fifty years after the Confederacy surrendered to Union forces to end the war. While the tensions may have mitigated away from full-fledged war between North and South, there still remain tensions along racial and cultural lines well beyond the war. In Tony Horwitz’s Confederates in the Attic these long standing tensions left over from the war are delved into by Horwitz as he makes his way acrossRead MoreThe Everlasting Jim Crow System973 Words  | 4 Pagesperiods of racial regulation system: The Slavery, The Jim Crow and The Mass Incarceration. The latter still dominates, and it perpetuates racial caste system in a way which is legalized and normalized under the sugarcoating of colorblindness. According to the author, the mass incarceration eventually becomes the new Jim Crow System, and it represents the recession of racial equality after the African-American Civil Rights movement. To identify the intrinsic nature of the everlasting racial segregationRead MoreRace And Reunion : The Civil War1581 Words  | 7 Pagesreunion, a majority of American white communities close obscure the civil war racial narrative would only fade. In race and reunion: The Civil War in American memory, by David Blight, represents how Americans chose to remember the Civil War conflict, from the beginning of the turning point of the war. The two major themes race and reunion, demonstrate how white Americans adjusted and altered the causes and outcomes of the Civil War to reflect their particular ideas regarding this catastrophic conflictRead MoreMany May Wonder About The Connection Between The Cold War1251 Words  | 6 PagesMany may wonder about the connection between the Cold War and the Civil Rights Movement and how the war has an effect on African-American civil rights. The effect may not be as perspicuous since these conflicts are two very strange juxtapositions. The two wars shared the same time and place in history yet they were never associated with each other. Although the Cold War may seem as if it went on for forever, from 1947 until 1991, the Civil Rights Movement went on from 1954 to 1968. However, the massRead MoreSocial Problems: Is the United States Post-Racial?1237 Words  | 5 Pagesï » ¿Is the United States Post-Racial? The election of Barack Obama to the Presidency of the United States has generated a lot of discussions and debate on the current racial affairs in the United States. Many assume that Obamas presidency ushers a new era post-racial America. So, I decided to read a few recent articles on the topic. The first was by Time Wise where he reflects on denial and reality in response to the question what is post-racial? (Wise, 2012). Wises article is depressing becauseRead MoreSlavery And The Civil War1706 Words  | 7 Pageshouse divided against itself. The United States were no longer united, mainly over the issue of slavery. In fact, many historians believe that, â€Å"From the nation’s founding, the issue of slavery threatened to tear the United States apart.†(â€Å"The Civil War†1). The issue of slavery was always kept at bay through the utilization of various compromises; however a permanent solution was never sought after by the government. The peoples’ perspective of slavery differed by region. In the South, the economyRead MoreRacial Ideology And The Term White Supremacy1424 Words  | 6 PagesThe term white supremacy is used to describe the racial ideology that promotes and revolves around the belief that people of white ethnicity are superior in their traits, characteristics, and attributes in comparison to other racial groups (Fredrickson, 2015). Therefore, the white race should have economic, political, and social rule over non-White individuals. There are many ideologies and schools of thought that have been used to support white supremacism; however, the majority of data is pseudoscientific
Thursday, December 26, 2019
James Madison, 4th President of the United States
James Madison (March 16, 1751–June 28, 1836) served as Americas 4th president, navigating the country through the War of 1812. Madison was known as the Father of the Constitution, for his role in its creation, and a man who served during a key time in the development of America. Fast Facts: James Madison Known For: Americas 4th president and the Father of the ConstitutionBorn: March 16, 1751 in King George County, VirginiaParents: James Madison, Sr. and Eleanor Rose Conway (Nelly), m. September 15, 1749Died: June 28, 1836 in Montpelier, VirginiaEducation: Robertsons School, College of New Jersey (which would later become Prrinceton University)Spouse: Dolley Payne Todd (m. September 15, 1794)Children: One stepson, John Payne Todd Early Life James Madison was born on March 16, 1751, the eldest child of James Madison, Sr., a plantation owner, and Eleanor Rose Conway (known as Nelly), the daughter of a wealthy planter. He was born at his mothers stepfathers plantation on the Rappahannock River in King George County, Virginia, but the family soon moved to James Madison Sr.s plantation in Virginia. Montpelier, as the plantation would be named in 1780, would be Madison Jr.s home for most of his life. Madison had six brothers and sisters: Francis (b. 1753), Ambrose (b. 1755), Nelly (b. 1760), William (b. 1762), Sarah (b. 1764), Elizabeth (b. 1768); the plantation also held more than 100 enslaved persons. The earliest education of James Madison, Jr. was at home, probably by his mother and grandmother, and at a school located on his fathers plantation. In 1758, he began attending the Robertson School, run by Scottish tutor Donald Robertson, where he studied English, Latin, Greek, French, and Italian, as well as history, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and geography. Between 1767 and 1769, Madison studied under the rector Thomas Martin, who was hired by the Madison family for that purpose. Education Madison attended the College of New Jersey (which would become Princeton University in 1896) from 1769–1771. He was an excellent student and studied a range of subjects, including oratory, logic, Latin, geography, and philosophy. Perhaps more importantly, he made close friendships at New Jersey, included the American poet Philip Freneau, writer Hugh Henry Brackenridge, lawyer and politician Gunning Bedford Jr., and William Bradford, who would become the second attorney general under George Washington. But Madison grew ill in college, and stayed in Princeton after he graduated until April 1772, when he returned home. He was sickly most of his life, and modern scholars believe he likely suffered from epilepsy. Early Career Madison didnt have a vocation when he left school, but he soon became interested in politics, an interest perhaps stirred but at least fed by his continuing correspondence with William Bradford. The political situation in the country must have been exhilarating: his zeal for freedom from Britain was very strong. His first political appointment was as a delegate to the Virginia Convention (1776), and then he served in the Virginia House of Delegates three times (1776–1777, 1784–1786, 1799–1800). While in the Virginia house, he worked with George Mason to write Virginias constitution; he also met and established a lifelong friendship with Thomas Jefferson. Madison served on the Council of State in Virginia (1778–1779) and then became a member of the Continental Congress (1780–1783). Father of the Constitution Madison first called for a Constitutional Convention in 1786, and when it was convened in 1787 he wrote most of the U.S. Constitution, which outlined a strong federal government. Once the Convention ended, he, John Jay, and Alexander Hamilton together wrote the Federalist Papers, a collection of essays that were intended to sway public opinion to ratifying the new Constitution. Madison served as a U.S. Representative from 1789–1797. On September 15, 1794, Madison married Dolley Payne Todd, a widow and socialite who set the pattern for the behavior of White House first ladies for centuries to come. She was a well-liked hostess throughout Jeffersons and Madisons time in office, holding convivial parties with both sides of the Congress in attendance. She and Madison had no children, although John Payne Todd (1792–1852), Dolleys son from her first marriage, was raised by the couple; her son William had died in the 1793 yellow fever epidemic that killed her husband. In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, in 1798 Madison drafted the Virginia Resolutions, a work that was hailed by anti-federalists. He was secretary of state under President Thomas Jefferson from 1801–1809. Embargo Act and the Presidency By 1807, Madison and Jefferson became alarmed at increasing reports on upheavals in Europe suggesting that Britain would soon go to war with Napoleons France. The two powers declared war and demanded that other nations needed to commit to a side. Since neither the Congress nor the administration were ready for all-out war, Jefferson called for an immediate embargo on all American shipping. That, said Madison, would protect American vessels from almost certain seizure, and deprive European nations of a needed trade that might force them to allow the U.S. to remain neutral. Passed on December 22, 1807, the Embargo Act would soon prove unpopular, an unpopularity that eventually led to U.S. involvement in the War of 1812. In the 1808 election, Jefferson supported Madisons nomination to run, and George Clinton was chosen to be his vice president. He ran against Charles Pinckney, who had opposed Jefferson in 1804. Pinckneys campaign centered around Madisons role with the Embargo Act; nevertheless, Madison won 122 of the 175 electoral votes. Negotiating Neutrality Early in 1808, Congress replaced the Embargo Act with the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed the U.S. to trade with all nations except France and Great Britain because of the attacks on American shipping by those two nations. Madison offered to trade with either nation if it would stop harassing American ships. However, neither agreed. In 1810, Macons Bill No. 2 was passed, repealing the Non-Intercourse Act and replacing that with a promise that whichever nation would stop harassing American ships would be favored and the U.S. would stop trading with the other nation. France agreed to this and the British continued to stop American ships and impress sailors. By 1811, Madison easily won the renomination for the Democratic-Republicans, despite being opposed by DeWitt Clinton. The campaigns main issue was the War of 1812, and Clinton attempted to appeal to both those for and against the war. Madison won with 128 out of 146 votes. War of 1812: Mr. Madisons War When Madison started his second administration, the British were still forcibly attacking American ships, seizing their cargo, and impressing their sailors. Madison asked Congress to declare war: but support for it was far from unanimous. The war, sometimes called the Second War for Independence (because it resulted in the end of U.S. economic dependence on Britain), pitted a barely prepared U.S. against the well-trained force that was Great Britain. On June 18, 1812, Madison signed a declaration of war against Great Britain, after Congress, for the first time in American history, voted to declare war against another nation. Americas first battle was a disaster called the Surrender of Detroit: The British, led by Major General Isaac Brock, and Native American allies, led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh, attacked the port city of Detroit on August 15–16, 1812. U.S. Brigadier General William Hull surrendered the town and fort, despite having a larger army. America fared better on the seas, and eventually retook Detroit. The British marched on Washington in 1814, and on August 23 they attacked and burned the White House. Dolley Madison famously stayed in the White House until she ensured that many national treasures were saved. The New England Federalists met at the Hartford Convention in late 1814 to discuss pulling out of the war, and there was even talk of secession at the convention. But, on December 24, 1814, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the fighting but resolved none of the pre-war issues. Retirement After his presidential term in office ended, Madison retired to his plantation in Virginia. However, he still stayed involved in political discourse. He represented his county at the Virginia Constitutional Convention (1829). He also spoke against nullification, the idea that states could rule federal laws unconstitutional. His Virginia Resolutions were often cited as a precedent for this but he believed in the strength of the union above all. He took a leadership role in the formation of the University of Virginia, especially after Thomas Jeffersons death in 1826. Madison was also a slave ownerâ€â€Montpelier had 118 slaves at one pointâ€â€who helped found the notorious American Colonization Society to help resettle freed blacks in what would become Liberia, Africa. Death Although Madison remained vigorous and active during his early retirement, beginning after his 80th birthday in 1829, he began to suffer from longer and longer spells of fever and rheumatism. Eventually he was confined to Montpelier, although he continued working when he could through the winter of 1835–1836. On June 27, 1836, he spent several hours writing a thank you note to George Tucker, who had dedicated his biography of Thomas Jefferson to him. He died the next day. Legacy James Madison was in power at an important time. Even though America did not end the War of 1812 as the ultimate victor, it did end with a stronger and independent economy. As the author of the Constitution, Madisons decisions made during his time as president were based on his interpretation of the document, and he was well-respected for that. In the end, Madison attempted to follow the Constitution and tried not to overstep the boundaries set before him as he interpreted them. Sources Broadwater, Jeff. James Madison: A Son of Virginia and a Founder of the Nation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.Cheney, Lynne. James Madison: A Life Reconsidered. New York: Penguin Books, 2014.Feldman, Noah. The Three Lives of James Madison: Genius, Partisan, President. New York: Random House, 2017.Gutzman, Kevin R. C. James Madison and the Making of America. New York, St. Martins Press, 2012.Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison: A Biography. University of Virginia, 1990.
Wednesday, December 18, 2019
A Comparison Of Oskar Schindler And Amon Goeth What Is...
Victor Frankl once said, â€Å"Any person, regardless of the circumstances, can decide what shall become of them – mentally and spiritually.†This is true for Oskar Schindler and Amon Goeth, who both had very different reactions to World War II. Human goodness is when one sees the truth, accepts it, and makes rational decisions based on the truth. Human evil is irrational decision-making, and when a person sees and understands the truth but choses to defy it. In Steven Spielberg’s Schindler’s List, philosophers Kant and Rahner would agree that Schindler is a representation of human goodness, and Goeth represents human evil. Oskar Schindler represents human goodness with his actions during the Holocaust. Oskar starts as a man who only acts for†¦show more content†¦They gave him a ring with a Hebrew saying on it and a letter signed by all his workers that explains how good he was to the Jews in his camp. Oskar suddenly felt emotional over everything he had done, and he started to say, â€Å"I could have got more.†He realized that he was capable of saving people during the war and wished he had saved, â€Å"One more person.†Rahner believed that goodness was when one chooses to abide by the truth through virtuous acts, although he also believed good people were capable of evil acts (Lippert). Oskar began as a selfish, manipulative man who was using the war to benefit himself. Once he saw the truth, he acted through virtue. When the war came to an end he wished he had done more, seeing that he was capable of giving up so much more of his own life to save others. Unfortunately, goodne ss like that is rare, but so is evil. Amon Goeth illustrates human evil with his actions during the Holocaust. Like Oskar, he used the war to his advantage by gaining power. Unlike Oskar, Amon found joy in killing. That alone is considered evil to most people and evil does not change. Oskar gets mad about the woman who said that his factory was a haven. When speaking to Itzhak about it, he says that war brings out the bad in people and that if there was no war, Amon would be good. This may be true for most people, but truly evil people do not change due to the situation. Looking at
Tuesday, December 10, 2019
Challenges In The Gas And Oil Industry †Myassignmenthelp.Com
Question: What Is The Challenges In The Gas And Oil Industry? Answer: Introduction Based on the global demand for oil and gas resources, it is indisputable that the world still depends on these natural resources. With the experienced issues relating to the exploration and spill outs during drilling, the management of risks is important in this industry. This is because; these commodities impose serious environmental and safety issues. The companies and governments have to join hands are reduce accidents through proper corporate governance. Scott (2014) believes that health risk management and ethical leadership are critical in managing the environments associated with the oil and gas industry. According to Anis and Siddiqui (2015), the stakeholders have increased interest in incorporating sustainability and overcoming the related operations challenges. Given the significance of corporate social responsibility, the oil and gas industry have faced challenges to address the emerging issues (Ferrell, Fraedrich, and Ferrell 2016). This article has provided an insight ba sed on the case study about business ethics and sustainability. Managing Ethical Risk The safety of the public and the environment are critical in managing risks thus reduce the accidents. By maintaining a safe environment, the drilling companies have an opportunity to reduce the possibility of explosions, spills, and oil leaks. According to Leveson (2011a), companies have affected the community by failing to address such issues. In fact, the impact of these risks extends beyond the public and community effects. It stretches to the public pressure and stakeholder reputation. Therefore, the companies have the responsibility to avoid public criticism many managing risks efficiently. Safety culture The safety culture is a problem to many companies and it has been the precursor for major accidents listed in this case study. Undoubtedly, the flaws in this culture are blamed for the accidents. In fact, both the industry and organizations have done the least to redefine their culture. Anis and Siddiqui (2015) held that the organizational culture highlights the companys shared norms and values that should be guiding the decision making process. Safety culture is critical because it a subset of the firms overall culture. The safety culture also reflects the approaches and attitude the firm and its stakeholders take to conduct risk and safety management. The leadership of an organization use the safety culture to establish the values that they use to make crucial decisions (Dutta and Sengupta 2014). Based on the challenges and issues experienced in the oil and gas industry, it is arguable that dysfunctional safety culture is to blame. For example, the culture of denial has put compani es into jeopardy. Despite the risk assessment pointing at the weaknesses that need to be fixed, the leaders of these companies have incessantly dismissed the assessment results thus avoids taking appropriate actions. Under the denial culture, the management assumes that accidents are inevitable. To this effect, the managers only pay close attention to good news. Often, these managers argue that the conditions in their companies are dangerous and they can do the least to improve the safety conditions than allow the accidents to be part of the productivity. As a price of productivity, these managers believe it is impossible to eliminate the products. For example, in many offshore oil-drilling firms, the culture of denial is predominant (Environment Agency 2013). Regarding the statement of the American Petroleum Institutes President after the Deep-water Horizon and the Washington State Tesoro Oil Refinery explosion, it was evident that the leadership is never taking any steps to introduce safety culture. In fact, the President classified the situation as normal happening in the industry. He acknowledged that nothing is safe outside the environment because nuclear engines run the metal tubes. Despite the dangerous status of this industry, it near impossible for the firms to operate without accidents. Apart from the denial culture, the industry also experiences the paper culture. Under this culture, most workers are engaged in writing and elaborating arguments showing the safety of their systems (Kiany, Rahimi, and Jokar 2015). Actually, these employees have the least time to participate in the programs that would make the environment safe as claimed. For instance, when the UK Nimrod Aircraft suffered in Afghanistan, the company analysts associated the accident to the use of safety case to be the contributing factors (Ferrell et al. 2016). This demonstrated that culture of paper safety caused the problem. The management failed to understand the real safety that was befalling the organization as explained by Haddon-Cave (2009). The following steps should be undertaken to control the situation. Introduce Incentives Many stakeholders have understood the relationship between the companys future viability, profitability and safety. However, this relationship has been vague on unclear regarding the offshore oil industry. This relationship has however been distinct in the aviation industry. The case in point is the GOM drilling that had strong moratorium indicating that firms that enjoyed a strong safety signals and cultures are likely to fall victims to the companies without such practices (Environment Agency 2013). To this effect, it is critical for the businesses to engage in self-policing initiatives to improve their safety. It is also important for the companies to introduce incentives that would promote the update of safety technology. Based on the cases, it was evident that the BOP standard design was inappropriate and ineffective for the exploration of deep water (Farahani, Ahadmotlaghi, Farahani, and Valafar 2015). Despite various signals showing the need to change the technology, companies involved in the industry completely dismissed or ignored the previous failures of the BOP. The management of these corporations insisted that the BOP design never needed any improvement. The same situation was evident when the relevant authorities and organization failed to act on the 1956 Refrigerator Safety Act that was adopted following the suffocation of the trapped children while playing in unused refrigerator (Dekker 2006). To manufacturers, redesigning the refrigerator was an effort in futility. These manufacturers ruled out any initiative to redesign the machine to create safer latches. However, after they were compelled to do so, these manufacturers introduced magnet latches that ensured the doors of refrigerators could only open from inside (Cleveland 2011). The new development completely eliminated the hazard and proved cheaper than the previous latches as explained by Martin and Schinzinger (1989). Based on this experience, it is important for the government to introduce technical incentives that would allow the companies and manufacturers to update their safety technologies because the oil and gas extraction and exploration conditions are dynamic. Industry standards The investigations revealed that the accident that was evident was attributed to lack of standards as expected in the industry. The cementing operations standards were never evident. For instance, even the least standards including the API Recommended Practices have become difficult to implement because of the lack of consensus among stakeholders. It is believable that such standards are a mistake (Kaplan and Mikes 2012). In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration has entrusted the Federal Advisory Committee with the defining and establishing policy, regulatory decision, and programs to instil standards in the commercial aviation industry. The RTCA.inc is an important NGO that is mandated to develop recommendations relating to traffic management systems, surveillance, and communications system issues (Ferrell et al. 2016). This private organization has proved to be necessary in defining the industry standards because it acts as broker. Such initiatives should be encour aged to help in building consensus. Self-policing The industry self-policing is another important initiative that can help in managing risk. Indisputably, the government regulatory authorities have expressed frustrations in accomplishing the set objectives to enforce the safety policies in the organizations. Given the limitation, the industry-self policing are critical (Kaplan and Mikes 2012). The power industry had adopted the INPO, as an organization meant to offer an oversight on nuclear power safety. This followed the Three Mile Island. The Presidential Oil Spill Commission had recommended the INPO as one of the best model that can help restore the sustainability and ethics in the oil and gas industry. The model will ensure that the gas and oil companies use the modern technologies and practices to reduce accidents. Safety Management systems Companies operating in the gas and oil industries should consider the new safety control structures to manage risks. In fact, safety control structures are unique, as each company needs to develop its own. Based on the case study, it emerged that the safety management structure of BP was defective and it needed improvement (Konar and Cohen 2001). The Baker Panel raised the red flag over the BPs safety control structure that it applied for its oil refineries. In the similar capacity, the FAA had recommended that airlines should take swift steps to address their safety needs. It further emphasized on the companies to use safety management systems to avoid accidents. Recently, the Presidential Oil Spill Commission emphasized on the environment and safety management system and the commission recommended that for the oil companies to be allowed to explore and drill oils, they must have acquired this condition as a prerequisite. Certification and training Based on the Deep-water Horizon accident investigation, it was evident that many workers of the firms only had minimal training (Leveson 2011). In fact, the majority of the workers had little certification needed for their operations. To this effect, it is prudent for the companies to train and certify their employees efficiently. Regarding the case study, it is evident that the industry has experienced accidents. However, it appears that the companies never learn from these events (Godfrey, Merrill, and Hansen 2009). To this effect, it is necessary for the companies to establish a system that is incident and accident investigative-oriented. This effort can encourage continual improvement and learning processes in the company. Hazard analysis Many companies in this oil and gas industry have established a strong hazard analysis tool. The HAZOP technique is one of the best tools that can help to restore the safety aspects in the organization (Pawan 2014). This technique has proved beneficial for the companies that have adopted it. This is because; the HAZOP has proved essential and can help the companies to improve their technological design. They need to apply the technique to guide performance and maintenance audits. Comparing the Risks BP, Exxon, and the Fracking Industry Face Similar risks The fracking industry, Exxon, and BP seem to face similar risks. For example, these companies are vulnerable to various risks including explosions, environmental contamination, leaks, and spills. All these companies, if given a chance, can damage the environment beyond reparation. The stakeholders can significantly suffer from these risks. Based on the case study, it is evident that Exxon and BP are experiencing the worst situation, as the supply of resources is becoming untenable (Sylves and Comfort 2012). Because of the shortage in supply of their primary commodities, these companies have the highest chances of taking risks to help them meet their market demand. For example, they can go out of their way just to obtain the resources, even if it means engaging in unethical practice (Manna, Marco, Letterman, and Mullen 2014). Therefore, the two companies are exposed to more dangerous risks, like spills, explosions, and environmental emissions than the fracking industry. The fracking industry is also experiencing its unique risks and uncertainty. For example, it is faces the challenge regarding its customer uncertainty. To this effect, it must continue to address this risk to avoid suffering the consequences of failing to responding to the market dynamics (Konar and Cohen 2001). Interestingly, the three companies are uncertain or sure about the safety of their operations. These companies have also failed to provide factual evidence to assure the public and shareholders that they take the issues of environmental and community protection seriously. This has made the communities to treat them with suspicion as the community view their hydraulic fracturing as dangerous. Reputation In business, customer is an important factor that any firm must consider. Regarding this companies, the brand image and reputation are equally relevant in attracting and retaining the customers. With the current customers opting for socially responsive companies, Exxon, BP, and fracking industry must address the issues associated with their product to avoid negative reputation. Customers would purchase products from companies that embrace safety measures (DeMarrais, and Lapan 2004). To this effect, it would prudent for Exxon, BP, and fracking industry to think of the targeted customers and their expectations. The individuals who will purchase the product would determine the brand image in the market. Therefore, they must overcome this risk by playing their cards according to the customers. Based on the case study, the hydraulic fracturing process remains under intense public scrutiny because of the potential harm it imposes on the environment and neighbouring communities. Ferrell, Finanacial, and Ferrell (2011) maintained that the public view the hydraulic fracturing to be the cause of water and air pollution, crime, traffic, and increased noise. The companies should track these problems and demonstrate to stakeholders including the regulators, investors, and the public their remedial measures. Since these companies have continuously failed to report to the investors about their activities, the investors have no obligation to credit them. This has a direct impact on the companys image. Political and financial risks The political risk dominates the oil and gas industry because of the political interests evident in this industry. For decades now, most of the political class have continued to get funding from the old and gas industry. For example, BP has continued to support the political activities so that the new administration can support its causes. The same applies to Exxon and fracking industry (Environment Agency 2013). The public pressure has put the companies on the spotlight. To this effect, the companies have identified leaders who can never turn against them and formulate policies that can ruin their operations. Therefore, the political risk evident is the ability to sustain the financial support without engaging in unethical practices. The corporate executives have been compelled to continue supporting the political activities in hope of gaining favours with the political class. This confirms that the political class has held the firms at ransom. The financial risk is also evident in this industry and all the companies have continued to face these risks (Breeze 2012). The continued uncertainty surround the global market value is affecting the companies. For instance, the global market has become unpredictable thus affecting the companies overall revenue earnings. With the economic crisis, the customers have opted for environmental friendly fuel. This has affected the companys ability to improve their earnings. For example, in the case study, it is evident that Exxon, fracking industry, and BP have posted losses. As a result, they have to identify the best strategies to overcome the financial risk. Diversification is one of the strategies these companies are using to remain in business. Ethical Leadership Helping the Oil and Gas Industry Responsibility and Transparency Culture Leadership is the cornerstone of any organization because a company can only set its organizational culture through its leaders. For example, when a leader makes ethical decisions, it is possible for the stakeholders to follow such a person. This is because; such a leader would display a complete commitment to protecting the stakeholders. According to Patton (2001), ethical leadership always guarantee an organization of proper risk management. For example, ethical leaders understand the significance of conducting an environmental risk assessment. To this effect, they incessantly establish relevant organizations to protect the environment, like IPIECA. With an organization that can stand out and speak for the society regarding the environmental ills perpetuated by other firms would gain public confidence. It is important for ethical leaders to take responsibility for their action (Ferrell et al. 2016). Based on the case study, companies lack ethical leaders who can pursue the interest of the society and stakeholders. Most these executive pursue their interests at all costs. This has seen them espouse an opaque culture in which nobody understands exempt them. Nonetheless, ethical leadership has seen everyone operate transparently and share views openly about the company. This transparency culture ensures the company engages stakeholders in its operations. The ethical leadership principle ensures that the company operates under clear guidelines. For instance, a transparent culture would embrace ethical reporting and disclosures. This accounting practice reduces any chances of corruption or inside trading that have befallen many corporations. Environmental Risk Management The ethical managers are concerned about the environmental risks. To this effect, they would do everything within their powers to adopt the best risk management programs to save the company, employees, and stakeholders. Without a doubt, a leader who values employees and environment always remain focused, visionary, and transformational. Such leaders are able to adopt changes that can transform the organization. The environmental risk management programs including hazard analysis system (Patton 2001). The ethical leaders would also embrace the industry standards to avoid unethical activities that would compromise its ethical practices. Quality and Safety Management Ethical leaders are concerned of the company reputation, community welfare, and the employee rights. To guarantee the organization its rightful position, the manager would train and certify the workers to make them skilful and experts in their field of operations. Konar and Cohen (2001) argued that ethical leaders value quality and safety of the workers. This is achievable by establishing organizational culture, values, and principles. Conclusion The companies involved in the work of gas and oil experience social and political difficulties because of the technical complexity. In the last few years, these companies have engaged in noble tasks and efforts to conduct their businesses in a socially responsible and sustainable way. The leadership have the responsibility to use environmental protection laws in responding to the impact of business on the environment. Sustainability remains to be a moral and scientific problem that managers must solve. The solution to this problem is founded on good governance as evident in this article. This involves brainstorming on the interconnections of the society, economy, government, and the environment. The good governance aspects fall back to the government while the multinational companies are the propelling forces. These companies must comply with the law by developing sustainable strategies and practices to define their operational environment. However, the companies have incessantly hel l-bent on corruption and malpractices to benefit a few players. References Anis, M.D. Siddiqui, T.Z., 2015. Issues impacting sustainability in the oil and gas industry, Journal of Management and Sustainability, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 115-123. Breeze, R., 2012. Legitimation in Corporate Discourse: Oil Corporations after Deep-water Horizon, Discourse Society, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 3-18. Cleveland, C. (Ed.), 2011, Jan 16. Deep Water: The Gulf Oil Disaster and the Future of Offshore Drilling. (Available at https://www.eoearth.org/view/article/162358/) Dekker, S., 2006. The field guide to understanding human error. Ashgate Publishing. DeMarrais, K. B., and Lapan, S. D., 2004. Methods of Inquiry in Education and Social Sciences, Foundations of Research, vol. 51, no. 5/6, pp. 546-545. Dutta, A. B., and Sengupta, I., 2014. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Construction, International Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 58-61. Environment Agency, 2013. An Environmental Risk Assessment for shale gas exploratory operations in England. Bristol: Environmental Agency. (Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/296949/LIT_8474_fbb1d4.pdf) Farahani, A. F., Ahadmotlaghi, A., Farahani, A. F., and Valafar, A., 2015, Pathology the Causes of Delay in the Major Projects of Oil Industrial, Case Study: South Pars, Journal of Recent Sciences, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 129-141. Ferrell, O.C., Fraedrich, J., and Ferrell, L., 2011. Business ethics: ethical decision-making and cases, 8th edition. South-Western Cengage, Mason, Ohio. Ferrell, O.C., Fraedrich, J., and Ferrell, L., 2016. Business ethics: ethical decision making and cases, 8th edition. South-Western Cengage, Mason, Ohio Godfrey, P. C., Merrill, C. B., and Hansen, J. M., 2009. The Relationship Between Corporate Social Responsibility And Shareholder Value: An Empirical Test Of The Risk Management Hypothesis, Strategic Management Journal, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 425-445. Haddon-Cave, C., 2009. The Nimrod Review. The Stationery Office Limited, London. Kaplan, R. S., and Mikes, A., 2012, Jun 1. Managing Risks: A New Framework, Harvard Business Review. (Available at https://hbr.org/2012/06/managing-risks-a-new-framework) Kiany, D., Rahimi, G., and Jokar, M. S., 2015. Gas Exporting Companies forum, Past and Future Research, Journal of Recent Sciences, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 89-94. Konar, S., and Cohen, M. A., 2001. Does The Marketing Value Environmental Performance? Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 281-289. Leveson, N., 2011, May 17. Risk management in the oil and gas industry, MIT. (Available at https://energy.mit.edu/news/risk-management-in-the-oil-and-gas-industry/) Leveson, N., 2011a. Engineering a safer world. MIT Press, New York. Manna, D., Marco, G., Letterman, D., and Mullen, J. (2014). Sustainable Case Study: Chevron Corporation, The Clute Institute, pp. 153-156. (Available at https://cluteinstitute.com/conference-proceedings/2014SAPapers/Article 251.pdf) Martin, M. and Schinzinger, R., 1989. Ethics in engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York. Patton, M. Q., 2001. Qualitative Research and Evolution Methods, 2nd edition. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Pawan, M., 2014. Impacts of Global Warming on Environment, International Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 72-78. Scott, M., 2014. Challenges for oil gas, Raconteur May 8. (Available at https://www.raconteur.net/sustainability/challenges-for-oil-gas) Sylves, R., and Comfort, L., 2012. The Exxon Valdez and BP Deep-water Horizon Oil Spills: Reducing Risk in Socio-Technical Systems, American Behavioural Scientist, vol. 56 no.1, pp. 76-103.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)